Scholarly Article on How to Teach Language Arts to Strugling Students
Teach Teach Educ. 2022 May; 81: 100–111.
Approximations in English language language arts: Scaffolding a shared didactics exercise
Kristine Thou. Schutz
aUniversity of Illinois at Chicago, 1040 W. Harrison, M/C 147, College of Education, Chicago, IL, 60607, The states
Katie A. Danielson
bNew York Academy, 239 Greene Street, Room 634, Steinhardt School of Civilisation, Education, and Human Development, New York, NY, 10003, United states
Julie Cohen
cUniversity of Virginia, P.O. Box 400273, Charlottesville, VA, 22904, U.s.
Received 2022 January 27; Revised 2022 Dec 14; Accepted 2022 January 4.
Abstract
Recent research highlights the importance of providing instructor candidates with opportunities to guess practise. Less attention focuses on tools teacher educators utilize within and surrounding approximations to focus candidates' attention on features of practice. This multi-example study investigates how three teacher educators use different approximations in means that strategically reduce the complication of learning to teach and scaffold the development of do. Data indicate teacher educators capitalized on four tools that scaffolded and shaped approximations into spaces for co-amalgam shared understandings of practice. These tools include: instructional activities, representations of practice, planning templates, and specified texts and instructional goals.
Keywords: Literacy educational activity, Approximations, Practice-based instructor educational activity, Preservice teacher education, Pedagogical tools
one. Introduction
Teachers typically better a lot early in their career (Kraft & Papay, 2014). This suggests there may be lessons learned in the showtime few years in the classroom that could be potentially traced dorsum to teacher training. To amend prepare novices who are readier day ane, teacher instruction has recently shifted to focus more than on educational activity practice, rather than learning educational theory and content noesis in isolation. Methods courses have become hotbeds of experimentation with different "approximations of practice" (Grossman et al., 2009) such as rehearsals or role plays, which simulate common teaching scenarios and provide opportunities to endeavor out teaching activities with support before using them in real classrooms with real students. These opportunities to practice are designed to "estimate" the situations first year teachers might face as teachers of record,one just with the benefit of concurrent feedback and support from expert instructor educators and peers (Schutz, Grossman, & Shaughnessy, 2018).
While a burgeoning body of literature has explored a particular form of approximation, the "rehearsal of practice," niggling research has focused on other forms of approximation that may vary in important ways. Much of the existing research on rehearsals focuses on the structures of the approximations, the roles of candidates and teacher educators (TEs), and the authenticity of the approximation to actual kindergarten - secondary (Yard-12)2 teaching. Less attending has been paid to the tools TEs use both within and surrounding approximations to enable candidates to focus on salient aspects of the practice approximated. If we desire maximize the learning potential of varied approximations, we need to build a more robust empirical base near how TEs structure and support candidates equally they practice the work of didactics. Tools are important as they have the potential to be used across teacher grooming contexts. TEs in practice-based programs would do good from guides for support, including resources and materials about facilitating approximations and scaffolding candidate learning in the context of teacher pedagogy programs.
As Grossman et al. (2009) noted, if teaching in K-12 classrooms is like kayaking in whitewater rapids with endless variables at play in any moment, an approximation affords TEs the opportunity to "at-home the waters" and highlight item aspects of education in a scaffolded way. However, to effectively and strategically calm those waters, we must build more than show about how TEs approach this job and to what effect. Like whatever learning experience, the approximation alone volition non provide the necessary support. The intentional decisions TEs brand and the tools they utilize both surrounding and inside an approximation help realize its instructional potential. If we want TEs to be able to carefully scaffold varied approximations of practice across different types of methods courses, nosotros demand more inquiry that makes visible the requisite processes, decision-making, and tools.
This paper focuses squarely on these issues, illustrating how three TEs, in the The states, structure three different approximations of practice to strategically reduce the complexity of learning to teach and back up the development of high-quality practice. We investigate the tools TEs consider when designing approximations and analyze how these tools provide singled-out opportunities for collective learning. Through these illustrative examples, we aim to aggrandize the repertoire of approximations of practise and highlight the disquisitional importance of the TE in facilitating candidate learning during approximations of practice.
We address two enquiry questions: (a) What approximations of exercise do English language arts (ELA) TEs use within methods courses focused on professional practice? (b) What tools inside and surrounding these approximations of do provide a scaffolded experience for learning to teach within a learning community? Using multi-case study, nosotros investigate how 3 TEs used approximations of exercise to back up teacher candidates in learning to enact the core practices of facilitating discussion and modeling in ELA, which are at the heart of effective ELA education (Duke & Pearson, 2002; Nystrand & Gamoran, 1991; Palincsar & Dark-brown, 1984). These courses are housed in three diverse contexts: an undergraduate literacy methods course situated at an elementary school, a literacy methods course for teachers of tape in an accelerated certification program,3 and a secondary university-based ELA methods class. The TEs and all authors are members of a cantankerous-institutional consortium engaged in collaborative design and report of cadre practices for K-12 teaching and TE pedagogies (east.g., rehearsal, TE modeling). This study provides helpful descriptive testify effectually tools that contribute to candidates' scaffolded experiences in learning to teach inside approximations. More broadly, it contributes to a meliorate understanding of forms of approximation that can be used and adapted in varied teacher education contexts and disciplines.
2. Background literature and framework
two.1. Communities of practise
Sociocultural theory, specifically work on communities of practice, informs the design of this study (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Vygotsky, 1978; Wenger, 1998). We investigate learning as a social process, influenced by interactions amongst individuals with unique cultural beliefs and attitudes. Group learning in methods courses, specifically the work occurring inside of approximations of practice, functions every bit a "customs of practice."
Communities of practice take iii characteristics: domain, customs, and practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991). The domain of involvement, in this written report is ELA teaching. The community includes individuals edifice relationships around a joint action, education ELA. Practice accounts for the shared repertoire of experiences, tools, and stories that develop through interactions over fourth dimension. Nosotros depict on these characteristics to understand the communities engaged in approximations. Approximations are the dynamic interaction among multiple factors: participants, tools, texts, physical setting, and the approximation structure. That is, each of these factors contributes to how an approximation unfolds and thus, candidates' opportunities for learning.
In communities of practice, participants negotiate meaning, allowing members to larn to flexibly apply their learning to new situations. This flexible application involves the use of tools, which may include a written template and shared language. As communities of do develop, individual participation in the group evolves and understanding deepens, which then influences how tools are appropriated. One tool that may support the evolution of shared practice is approximations, which are shared publicly with the community of learners and serve as pedagogical tools to support candidates in learning to enact didactics with support.
2.ii. Approximations of practice
Approximations take myriad forms but are all designed to create a space in which the complexity of learning to teach is reduced to allow teachers to attend to and develop item aspects of their practice in a safe space with instructional support. Approximations of practice are not simply opportunities to do teaching. Informed past the theory of deliberate practice (Ericsson, 2002), they are spaces in which candidates work on specific aspects of complex practice. Approximations occur inside a community of practice providing candidates the opportunity to appropriate tools from the course and further develop a shared understanding of teaching exercise. Inside these spaces, the TE, drawing from multiple bodies of knowledge including an understanding of novice development, shapes opportunities for learning. In approximations, TEs anticipate challenges novices volition face in ways that attend to trajectories of learning to teach and "invite novices into sure aspects of practice in order to refine detail elements" (Grossman et al., 2009, p. 2091). Feedback and conversation inside approximations facilitate new understandings of practice and its inextricable link to theory.
Beyond approximation, Grossman and colleagues' (2009) advise two additional dimensions of professional practice: representation and decomposition. Representations are images of practice that brand particular aspects of practise visible (e.g., videos, cases). Decomposition unpacks complex aspects of practice making them visible for learners. Inside and post-obit the approximations, TEs and candidates decompose practice - naming and describing specific aspects or moves - made visible inside the representations created via the approximation. TE-researchers have started to explore the human relationship among the 3 facets of professional practice. For example, in mathematics, Ghousseini and Herbst'south (2016) study of approximations revealed how didactics exercise is decomposed and represented within and across three approximations of practice in a secondary mathematics methods course. Similarly, Schutz and Danielson (2016) found that inside rehearsals of read alouds in literacy methods courses, TEs back up the decomposition of elements of practice while simultaneously (re)shaping representations of practice made visible to candidates.
Approximations create a space where practice is decomposed and recomposed. Janssen, Grossman, and Westbroek (2015) draw on modularity theory in discussing the need to recompose practice after learning something in isolation. When approximating practice, if candidates only engage in practices at a fine-grained size (e.g., eliciting student thinking vs. facilitating a discussion), information technology is important to discuss how the piece fits into a larger instructional space (Ball & Forzani, 2009). In approximating practice, different dimensions must exist considered, what is being practiced, the context, and the scaffolding for novices (Janssen et al., 2015). The use of modularity theory supports candidates in seeing exercise as a whole and in varying grain sizes.
Most research on approximations centers on one detail approximation, rehearsals, where candidates practice teaching and receive in-the-moment feedback when a TE or the candidate pauses educational activity. During these pauses, TEs invoke a number of instructional moves to focus candidates on principles, practices, and content. Rehearsals allow for the "deliberate practise of … routine elements as well as opportunities to respond in a principled way to the kinds of non-routine information that comes from students" (Kazemi, Franke, & Lampert, 2009, p. 5). Although initial studies of rehearsal occurred in mathematics education, researchers in multiple domains and disciplines take started to explore the pedagogy of rehearsal (Bridegroom-Chambers, 2016; Davis et al., 2017). These studies demonstrate how TEs use rehearsal every bit a space to engage candidates in the complexity of practice, while supporting candidates' evolution of pedagogical content knowledge and knowledge of children. Studies of rehearsal across disciplines take shown how TEs apply varied moves inside rehearsals to address aspects of practice and build noesis (Barker, 2016; Davis et al., 2017; Kavanagh et al., 2017; Lampert et al., 2013; Schutz & Danielson, 2016).
2.3. Scaffolds to support approximations
Researchers are beginning to investigate tools that back up approximations of instruction. In approximations, tools scaffold TCs experience as they begin to develop a common linguistic communication for and vision of practice. Well-nigh studies that investigate the use of such tools have examined rehearsals (Benedict-Chambers, 2016; Ghousseini, Beasley, & Lord, 2015; Kazemi, Lampert, & Franke, 2009; Schutz & Danielson, 2016). The literature points to two types of tools used inside rehearsals to support approximated education: structural tools and interactional tools.
Structural tools scaffold candidates agreement of routines inside the practice being approximated. Such tools ofttimes serve every bit common contexts in which TEs support candidates to develop the knowledge, skill, and dispositions for education. During rehearsals in mathematics, instructional activities (IAs) are used to structure interactions within the work of authentic problems of exercise in education (Lampert, Beasley, Ghousseini, Kazemi, & Franke, 2010; Lampert & Graziani, 2009). Janssen et al. (2015), note IAs are a fruitful space to decompose and recompose practice, and protocols have been developed to brand this decomposition and recomposition transparent. The use of IAs has also led TEs to develop lesson plans for candidates that highlight particular content and practise, serving as both an additional scaffold and representation of practice. Similar to IAs, TEs have also used frameworks for specific activities to support candidates (e.g., Alston, Danielson, Dutro, & Cartun, 2017; Davis, 2018). Many of these frameworks attend to detail aspects or facets of activities/tasks. For example, scientific discipline educators utilize a four-element framework to organize science discussions (Davis et al., 2017).
While IAs and frameworks create structures for interaction, other research has examined tools that support candidates' interactions with students. Interactional tools support participant date inside approximations. Ghousseini et al. (2015) investigated the use of a question sequence to support candidates in facilitating interaction during mathematics instruction. This question sequence provided a space inside of rehearsals to appoint in adaptive and responsive mathematics teaching. Benedict-Chambers (2016) investigated how specific tools and routines in rehearsals supported candidates in learning nearly science teaching. Ane tool supported candidates to collaborate with student sense-making during science discussions considering it previewed potential student misconceptions. The use of questions (Ghousseini et al., 2015) and interactional tools (Benedict-Chambers, 2016) attend to the rich piece of work happening in the approximation. Interactional tools support decisions around what is going on within and surrounding the approximation and bring coherence to the elements that influence the approximation.
Recent research on rehearsals has also attended to how talk can be leveraged every bit a tool within and following rehearsals to mediate candidates' understanding. Such research focuses on the detail moves TEs brand inside of rehearsals (e.g., Davis et al., 2017; Lampert et al., 2013; Schutz & Danielson, 2016). Lampert et al. (2013) investigated interactions between TEs and candidates during math rehearsals, finding pauses were used to address unlike structures and substance during rehearsals. Davis and colleagues (2017) institute seven purposes for pausing during science rehearsals, the most mutual being providing feedback to candidates. Schutz and Danielson (2016) examined the moves literacy TEs made during read aloud rehearsals, noting how moves served as critical levers for (re)shaping representations of practice and intervening on pre-existing and sometimes contradicting images of practise. These studies demonstrate the potential opportunity in rehearsals to scaffold candidate learning of in-the-moment instructional decision-making.
3. Methodology
3.i. Multi-case written report
A multi-case study approach was used to gain an in-depth understanding of the approximations of exercise TEs used. Case written report is an appropriate methodology to investigate the dynamic, multi-faceted nature of approximations as it enables researchers to examine the complex, authentic interactions among participants, tools, and contexts (Merriam, 2009). The participants in this study were 3 ELA TEs working in do-focused teacher pedagogy programs at public, research universities across the United states of america. The participants were members of the Cadre Practice Consortium (CPC), a multi-institutional team of teacher education researchers attempting to develop a commonage understanding of core practices and TE pedagogies (Grossman & McDonald, 2008).
iii.2. Participants and research contexts
The TEs had varied levels of experience and taught different courses in unlike contexts (come across Fig. 1). All had been working to develop and document their do, specifically the utilise of approximations in their courses.
Alexis4 had nine years experience as a TE and taught a secondary ELA methods course during the second semester of an undergraduate program at a academy in the Midwest region of America. Alexis's candidates were in field placements during the class, which provided opportunities to enact lessons from the course. I specific lesson required candidates to co-pb discussions with a partner in their placements. Depending on the context, candidates sometimes modified the grade of the discussion from what they learned in grade. For example, some candidates facilitated discussions with a grouping of students instead of the whole class. After, candidates shared video-recordings of these discussions with classmates to reflect on their practice.
Ella had four years of experience and taught a three-quarter elementary literacy methods course sequence in a graduate program at a academy in the Western region of America. Candidates were teachers of tape while enrolled in the program and enacted what they learned in the course in their own classrooms. Candidates enacted and videotaped lessons in their classrooms as assignments and incorporated IAs and practices every bit part of their daily classroom routines.
Hope had been a TE for xv years and taught a schoolhouse-embedded writing methods class to first-year undergraduate candidates at another Midwestern university. The course was taught at an elementary school to enable candidates to piece of work with children in classrooms within each class session with TE support. Hope's candidates taught modest-grouping writing lessons each week. Candidates rotated the office of lead teacher weekly, but worked with the same minor grouping of students throughout the course.
three.3. Data collection
Data were collected from September to June in 2014–2015. Data included video of grade sessions incorporating approximations (N = 6, 2 per site), field notes, four interviews per TE, and course artifacts (e.thou., syllabi, lesson plans). Researchers conducted semi-structured interviews using a protocol before and after collecting video data at each site. Initial interviews addressed programmatic factors, grade design, and TE's utilize of core practices and TE pedagogies. All other interviews were designed to allow TEs to preview or debrief observed form sessions to highlight their decision-making.
3.iv. Data analysis
Data analysis began with inductive and deductive coding using a coding scheme developed by the CPC to capture variations of approximations. The initial coding scheme captured:
- ● descriptions of the approximation structure, with attention to participant roles, relationship to enactment, and supporting tools
- ● participant actions and moves
Initial open up coding of approximation videos was conducted across the larger inquiry team using Studiocode. After this get-go circular of coding, the CPC research team discussed the coding to build consensus. A sub-grouping refined the codes for the final codebook.
The first two authors applied the codes to ELA-specific video segments. Videos were initially coded individually, starting with ane from each site. In one case the initial videos were coded, the first two researchers compared coding. When there was disagreement in codes, the researchers discussed reasoning until reaching consensus. Subsequently this initial coding, the ELA team realized a effectively-grained assay was needed to understand specific tools supporting approximation across the courses. Additional codes were developed through word, drawing from notes from initial coding. These codes attended to the nature of the tools. For example, it emerged that each ELA-TE considered text selection for approximations – either by selecting a text or constraining text selection. The boosted codes captured these TE decisions that connected to the initial coding scheme and may not have arisen with the larger CPC group considering they were ELA-specific (See supplementary textile for codes).
I video from each site was then watched to refine codes and calibrate reliability. Following video coding, memos were written describing the approximations featured in each TE's practice, the structure of the approximation, participant's roles, and the focus of specific interactions.
Once initial coding of videos was complete, videos were transcribed. Transcription allowed for further analysis of TE language. Transcripts were then uploaded into Dedoose and coded. The same coding scheme was used across videos and transcripts. 1 researcher compared a portion of video from each site to the coded transcript to cheque for reliability. TE interviews and course documents were also uploaded and coded in Dedoose. Afterward all documents had been coded, including multiple passes through to look for confirming or disconfirming evidence, information matrices (Miles & Huberman, 1994) and memos focused on the utilize of tools to support approximations were created for each instance. Data were analyzed within and across cases. Case memos were shared with TEs as a style of fellow member checking findings.
iv. Results
Our analysis revealed three qualitatively dissimilar approximations of exercise beyond the methods courses: concentric circles, rehearsals, and work-throughs. The approximations shared several tools that scaffolded candidates' opportunities to collectively understand and develop teaching practice. Because the core practices TEs targeted within approximations varied, we focus on tools used by all three TEs that were specific to the design of the overall approximations. These tools include: (1) IAs; (2) representations; (3) planning templates; and (iv) texts and instructional goals. These tools diminished complexity inside approximations and enabled the approximations to become collaborative spaces for potential learning.
4.1. Three approximations of practice
4.1.1. Concentric circles
Alexis strategically used concentric circles to support her secondary ELA candidates in learning to facilitate discussions about texts. Concentric circles were a multi-layered approximation that allowed candidates to exercise didactics, act every bit students, and detect. During concentric circles, candidates were seated in two circles – an within circle in which candidates either approximated the teaching of a segment of an IA or engaged equally fictional students, and an outside circle in which candidates observed and analyzed interactions occurring in the center circumvolve. Throughout the approximation, the TE remained in the inner circle, playing a fictional educatee. In this role, she made contributions that intentionally probed candidates to use talk moves they had been taught. For example, she responded with a purposeful response to give candidates the opportunity to endeavour "pressing." She besides drew from her knowledge of learners by representing mutual misconceptions candidates should be prepared to attend to in their didactics. The TE's office remained consistent throughout concentric circles; still, candidates rotated through the roles of teacher, student, and observer. A debrief followed the approximation.
4.1.two. Rehearsals
Ella used rehearsals throughout her uncomplicated literacy methods course to back up candidates who were simultaneously teachers of record. The rehearsals were conducted similarly to how they are described in the literature (due east.g., Kazemi et al., 2009). One candidate enacted the role of the teacher and false teaching a segment of an IA (e.g., interactive read aloud, modeled writing). Other candidates responded every bit students and observed. Inside rehearsal, the TE or rehearsing candidate paused the teaching to omnibus or hash out aspects of teaching and learning surfaced in the approximation with the group. Then, the rehearsing candidate typically repeated the segment of teaching that was discussed and attempted to utilise feedback. Ella highlighted primal learnings for candidates' consideration when planning and enacting lessons later on each rehearsal.
4.one.iii. Work-throughs with deliberate dives
Hope used work-throughs in her school-embedded writing methods course to back up candidates in planning and preparing IAs they and so enacted in a classroom. During work-throughs, candidates collaborated in teams, focused on refining a focal candidate'south lesson plan throughout the approximation and collaborative planning. Work-throughs occurred simultaneously in multiple teams, and TEs rotated, intermittently joining different teams and engaging in, what we term, deliberate dives. During deliberate dives, the TE observed and extended candidates' contributions or concerns to position the candidates for a successful enactment in classrooms.
four.ii. Instructional activities
To facilitate approximations of educational activity, TEs must supply novices with a specific component of exercise to guess. Beyond approximations, the TEs designed or selected IAs for this purpose. Although the TEs could have had candidates approximate a single core practice (due east.g., eliciting student thinking), instead, all three TEs embedded work on teaching inside IAs. Fig. 2 overviews the focal IAs for each approximation. The IAs differed across approximations and were influenced by course goals and grade level (i.e., elementary or secondary). Beyond approximations, the IAs served equally a "stable and rehearsable properties" in which TEs honed in on particular aspects of practice and tightened the range of noesis of focus (Lampert & Graziani, 2009, p. 493). For example, although at that place are many structures and purposes for facilitating interactive read alouds, the TE identified one that was accessible to novices.
IAs addressed in approximations.
TEs reported using IAs for three purposes. Kickoff, the IA served as a common, articulated construction for candidates, thus building a shared understanding of do. Each of the IAs independent multiple parts and could be segmented to emphasize the dissimilar purpose attached to each part. Alexis used the IA of "into, through, and beyond discussion" (Brinton & Holten, 1997), herein referred to every bit "word." The IA was segmented into three sections; each department had a dissimilar purpose and requisite set of teacher moves. For instance, in the "into" department of the IA, candidates established norms and prepared students for the discussion using an assortment of activities to prime number groundwork noesis. These aspects could be flexibly addressed within the "into" section of the IA. 2d, the IA served as a infinite to situate the learning of core practices and specialized content noesis. Ella described IAs as "a tool to help [candidates] focus in on the content and the core practices." Promise described how the IA provided a context in which she could talk virtually practices such as facilitating interaction and modeling, as well every bit principles of educational activity that undergird her course, considering in her view of educational activity, "everything is then embedded." Finally, TEs spoke of how the IAs they designed or selected served as portable and "important tools" that candidates could use in the time to come. Alexis recalled telling candidates, "I'chiliad going to teach you something at present that you might use in some kind of permutation, maybe, later on." Hope stressed how when candidates enter their own classrooms, she wants them to call up, "Oh. I can practice this considering I have this in my toolbox …" referencing the IA.
iv.three. Representations of practice
TEs used multiple forms of representations as tools to provide candidates with common images of education do. The representations shared with candidates prior to planning for and approximating educational activity were created or selected by the TEs to marshal with their conception of instruction and to brand item aspects of practice visible to novices. The representations took ane of 3 forms: (1) the TE modeled while candidates participated every bit student learners; (2) the TE shared a video of her teaching the IA in a classroom with children; or (iii) the TE shared a video of a novice teacher pedagogy the IA. Importantly, the representations emphasized aspects of practice the TEs believed were necessary and accessible for novices. This emphasis served as a scaffold to back up candidates to notice these aspects; whereas they might not take been every bit visible in representations that did not attend to novice trajectories of learning to teach. Debrief or discussion about particulars of exercise followed the employ of these representations. During the debrief, TEs decomposed practise to begin to institute a common and specified understanding of the IA, core practices, and disciplinary content. The representations also often served equally common texts or references during the course, with the TE or candidates connecting electric current learning to the representation previously viewed or experienced together.
4.three.1. Concentric circles
Alexis shared multiple representations of practice to assistance candidates brainstorm to develop a mutual vision for facilitating discussion. She recognized that not all candidates had opportunities to find discussions in the field, and therefore needed to provide in-class representations that highlighted the blazon of discussion she was preparing candidates to gauge and then facilitate in classrooms. Equally such, the representations Alexis provided in course through modeling and a video of a novice teacher served as early images for the candidates as they began to develop a shared definition and vision of discussion.
In video records of Alexis' teaching, each representation was followed past a debrief in which Alexis facilitated the decomposition of practice to assist candidates name and empathize give-and-take components and instructional moves she accounted disquisitional for novices. For example, after modeling a give-and-take, Alexis asked candidates to consider the facilitation moves and strategies they had observed her using, and the impact on their responses and learning. The class discussed the experience and their noticings, and Alexis subtly highlighted particular aspects of practice by revoicing candidate contributions using professional language. Following the discussion, she shared prepared slides that provided a clear decomposition of each section of the give-and-take. For instance, she named and discussed 3 aspects of the "through" part of the discussion equally: "(ane) using facilitative moves; (2) attending to and assisting educatee participation; and (3) sharing non-evaluative responses." She then expanded on each facilitative moves past naming, defining, describing the purpose, and providing examples. Farther, inside the debrief, Alexis articulated her controlling for candidates and drew attention to the oft invisible intentionality of instructor'southward real-time decisions. As such, the representation becomes a common epitome of do for the community, while the accompanying decomposition and specification of exercise support candidates' development of a shared understanding of discussion.
Alexis besides shared a video representation of a novice teacher facilitating a give-and-take. In an interview, she explained this selection, stressing the divergence between representations of expert and novice do. She said, "They are commencement-yr teachers, so information technology's closer to the kind of work they can do. When I use veteran teachers, [novices] can't see themselves and but don't have abroad as much." In this manner, she provided candidates with an accessible representation of do that they could probable relate to and perhaps emulate. The construction of the IA and the facilitation moves Alexis introduced were visible in the video, and some language Alexis had introduced also appeared.
4.iii.2. Rehearsals
To support candidates in learning nearly IAs they would rehearse, Ella both modeled and shared video representations of herself didactics the IAs (e.g., interactive read aloud) to children. She deliberately aligned the representations she created for candidates with the IA and made focal elements of practice visible. For example, when modeling instructor-modeled writing for candidates, she deliberately used marking language such as "Did you discover how I …" to show candidates how to draw children'due south attending to how she was annotating the writing strategy she had but demonstrated. She made like, intentional moves in the videos of her pedagogy, however these videos besides showed candidates how children engaged in the lesson.
Debriefs of representations attended to multiple aspects of teaching do. Ella described how debriefs serve equally an integral role of the representations every bit candidates sentry her, and and then, together, they "break [the representation] downwardly in all these different ways and talk almost what's going on with the content, talk virtually what's going on with the core practices." Within the debriefs, Ella besides highlighted the instructional decisions she fabricated to assist candidates see that instructional decisions are always contextualized and responsive to learners. For example, when debriefing the read aloud she facilitated with children, she helped candidates see and understand specific moves she made to back up a child who was reluctant to participate. Although debriefs occupied a lot of time, they served every bit valuable resources every bit candidates began to plan for and rehearse the IAs. Ella described how the representations are something the learning community is "constantly coming back to." She explained how members of the learning community, including herself, prompt the group to remember the model:
We'll exist having a word or someone will be planning. They'll be wondering about the question to ask. I'll say, Let'southward think about when I did [the interactive read aloud of] My Best Friend. What did I exercise in that moment? … We're constantly coming back to that, we're breaking information technology downward …
As such, the representations serve as visions of practice to which the community returns, equally their ain practice develops and feel expands. Subsequently existence prompted to render to representations to support their ain planning or approximation of practice, Ella routinely stressed how candidates needed to "consider the thinking backside moves and how it applies to the candidates' classroom state of affairs[due south]." The goal in sharing these representations is not to encourage mimicry, but rather to assist the community begin to develop a shared agreement of practice. This facilitates collective conversation near the moment-to-moment decisions teachers make, and how they impact educational activity.
4.3.three. Work-throughs
All representations supporting work-throughs were modeled live by a TE. Promise or her instruction assistant modeled the IA when first introducing information technology to candidates and co-planned these modeled lessons with another TE to intentionally describe attending to aspects of exercise candidates were learning within the IA. Hope described how she "planned really carefully" and "was only very conscious" to make focal aspects of exercise like marking and modeling "visible" to candidates. This type of modeling on the part of the TE required actress preparation, both identifying what should be highlighted for candidates in the representation and how it would be done. For case, when preparing to model how teachers facilitate interaction inside of the IA of "using literature as a mentor text," the TE described how she drafted "a lot of phrases and questions that [she] could use every bit a bank …" to facilitate talk.
Hope besides consistently debriefed representations to help candidates develop a mutual understanding of education practice. For case, she described how they'll "step back," ask what candidates noticed, then brainstorm to name specific aspects of practice and discuss their importance. One example of this occurred equally the TE was helping candidates learn to facilitate conversation among students. After the TE modeled, candidates noted how she coordinated the sharing of student thinking for the group, helping students connect their ideas. The TE and so shared specific talk moves and discussed how teachers must shift authority within discussions to aid students heed and acquire together.
4.4. Planning templates
The TEs provided candidates with TE-created planning templates in preparation for approximations. Each planning template was specific to the IA and aligned with the representations of practise TEs shared. Planning templates segmented the activity, provided an extended decomposition of the activity tailored to novice needs, and incorporated professional language previously introduced to candidates. The planning templates served as tools to support candidates' agreement of the decomposed IA and furthered their shared understanding of practise. Moreover, the segmented construction and professional person language provided in the templates supported candidates to begin to develop a common language and more than nuanced understanding of the work of didactics located within the IA.
4.four.1. Concentric circles
Alexis'due south planning template required candidates to identify two types of learning goals for discussions - "learning for give-and-take" (i.e., goals specific to ELA-specific word practices) and "learning with discussion" (i.east., goals attending to ideas in the text) to help candidates come across that discussions tin can support students' understanding of text and their engagement with disciplinary-specific practices such as citing textual testify. The planning template included iii types of questions a instructor might pose within a discussion: questions that back up students to demonstrate knowledge, synthesize knowledge, and grapple with big ideas related to the text. Information technology besides prompted candidates to craft initial questions, anticipate possible student responses, and identify possible follow-up questions to press students to elaborate (c.f., Alston et al., 2017). This blazon of planning template emphasizes that candidates must ever consider the students they volition teach and think beyond planning initial questions in discussions, every bit teaching is an interactive, relational try.
The template as well served as a tool to help candidates brainstorm to develop a collective framework for eliciting and responding to students. When discussing how she supports candidates' planning, Alexis emphasized how the template "helps them press, post, and revoice." The template reinforces professional language to draw talk moves Alexis introduced in a previous form session.
4.4.2. Rehearsals
Referring back to the IA Ella previously modeled for the candidates, she described the purpose of the template equally, "The IA template decomposes what was just taught for them. It breaks that lesson up into those components." For example, the planning template for i IA, interactive read aloud, segmented the IA into five steps: text selection and objectives identification, transition to lesson, earlier reading, during reading, and subsequently reading (c.f., http://tedd.org/activities/interactive-read-aloud/). The planning template further unpacked each step into actionable moves for candidates or questions to consider while planning. In Step three: During Reading (meet Fig. 3), the bullets highlight connecting to prior learning, activating background knowledge, and naming a learning objective. The decomposition of each step in the planning protocol as well served as a guide for both candidates and the TE during the rehearsal. For case, prior to her rehearsal, a candidate identified, "… thinking well-nigh stopping points and the questions …" every bit a focal surface area for her rehearsal. During the rehearsal, the TE paused the approximated teaching and elicited the candidate'due south thinking about why she had selected specific stopping points. Every bit a grouping, they discussed the importance of connecting stopping points to learning objectives, linking straight with Step four of the planning template (see Fig. 3), and the TE provided an example of how the candidate could phrase a question to do so. Finally, the template served as tool around which candidates could begin to acquire professional terms to describe didactics or content within their community. For instance, the template specified how interactive read alouds demand content and process objectives. In multiple rehearsals, candidates shared these objectives before rehearsing and incorporated the language into moments in which they were discussing their educational activity with the group.
Excerpt for the planning template novices used to prepare for interactive read alouds.
4.4.iii. Work-throughs
Hope's template for modeled writing segmented the IA into multiple segments and further unpacked each segment. In add-on to list constituent elements in each segment, she also provided sample language for candidates to use to script their lessons. To help candidates develop instructor language to support children in activating background knowledge, she provided the following instance in the template, "Example: I remember last week X used a question to start her story. That was a great strategy. I want to retrieve almost another strategy for writing strong ancestry that hook the reader. I thing great authors sometimes use is dialogue. Raise your manus if you could share what the give-and-take 'dialogue' means. Build on child's response." The template offered a model of concise and economic language. Hope described the IA-specific lesson templates as "very detailed," but stressed how candidates "kind of customize it and work with it." Inside work-throughs, candidates frequently used planning templates as tools equally they began to develop a common understanding in their teams. For example, the transcript below shows how i candidate appropriated language from the template in her work-through:
| Approximating Candidate: | Okay, so we're doing another mini lesson this week. Who can tell me what we focused on terminal week? What was our chief goal? |
| TC ane: | The hook of a personal narrative? |
| Approximating Candidate: | The claw. Exactly. And what type of hook did we use? |
| TC 2: | Questions |
| Approximating Candidate: | A question, yeah. This week, nosotros're gonna work a different type of hook and we're gonna use dialogue. Does anyone know what that give-and-take means? Dialogue? |
The approximating candidate in this case draws on the language provided by Promise in the planning template, but rather than making a statement almost what students take and volition larn, she uses questions to address the aforementioned information. Following this moment, her team discussed the pedagogy, concluding through collaborative word that it might be helpful for her to summarize the instructional purpose of the lesson for emphasis after facilitating this chat with students. Because the TE was non always present in work-throughs, candidates depended on the template to serve as not just a guide for planning, but also a guide for providing feedback to peers during the approximation.
iv.5. Texts and instructional goals
Across the three approximations, TEs prescribed or held some combination of the instructional text and instructional goals constant to hone the focus of the approximation. These constraints were often designed in response to the contexts in which the approximations were situated. All TEs held both the text and instructional goal constant for planning and the approximation to some extent. Identifying the text and instructional goal constrained the focus of the content during the approximations and has the potential to requite candidates experiences interacting with the limited content in deep means inside and surrounding the approximation.
four.v.ane. Text
4.v.1.1. Concentric circles
Alexis purposefully selected the text candidates used in concentric circles. All candidates analyzed and planned to approximate facilitating discussion of segments of the aforementioned text, i that she had previously used to model facilitating a discussion with the candidates. Equally such, candidates considered the text prior to engaging in concentric circles in each of the iii candidate roles (i.e., approximating teacher, fictional educatee, observer). This influenced the approximation in two ways. Beginning, information technology enabled the fictional students to respond without hesitation when the teacher posed questions. Alexis explained how this created a dynamic different than what candidates would probable experience in classrooms. She discussed how because the English majors in her class take strong comprehension and are "so adept at participating in a word," how they enacted their roles every bit fictional students during concentric circles was "not what they will so be involved in a classroom." She stressed how they'll need to learn to "manage the 5 [students] up front who always talk with the ten in back who never talk" or the "one student [who] says something that you're not sure connects." Since candidates often struggle to manage student date, their automatic participation decreased the complexity of the activity and allowed the approximating teacher to focus on aspects of the IA that Alexis had emphasized in the specification. Second, the deep knowledge of the text across all participant roles situated the fictional students and observers inside the education in a way that positioned them to learn from it across the roles of teacher, student or observer.
4.5.one.2. Rehearsals
During rehearsals, the TE controlled the text pick for the first cycle of an IA, just immune candidates to select texts in subsequent cycles to enable connections to the school curriculum and their students. The candidates planned for, rehearsed and enacted an interactive read aloud of the same text that Ella had shared a video of herself education. In the adjacent wheel, candidates selected their own texts. In some ways, this changed the nature of Ella's role during rehearsals. She described the impact of the "text cistron":
I oasis't necessarily read every book. There'south some in-the-moment decisions that I'm also making as a teacher educator because I can't anticipate everything that might come up.
When TEs are familiar with a text, this enables them to anticipate resources and challenges of the text, and then back up candidates in leveraging or attending to these in rehearsals. Nonetheless, without this knowledge, the TE'due south function in the learning customs shifts; the TE experiences the rehearsal similarly to how candidates do. In rehearsals where Ella was unfamiliar with the text, she often initiated pauses saying, "As a learner, I'm wondering …" or "As a learner, I'm feeling …" whereas she did not utilise this phrase when she knew the text.
4.5.i.three. Work-throughs
Because work-throughs were used in a writing methods grade, the TE controlled the text pick differently. When candidates were focused on the IA of literature equally a mentor text, Hope modeled using the mentor text A Chair for My Mother by Vera B. Williams. Candidates then used this same text in work-throughs. Keeping the text consequent enabled candidates to encounter how an experienced TE would utilise the text inside the IA and presented an image of how instruction could potentially unfold. In a unlike IA, teacher-modeled writing, candidates used self-authored personal narrative texts. The self-authored texts served as starting points when candidates developed their plans for teacher-modeled writing, as the IA requires teachers to demonstrate and explain how to apply writing strategies in their own writing. Although the text was not then prescribed, the TE could ensure that the instructional texts (i.e., the self-authored narratives) had a common set of features (e.g., sequenced events, conflict).
4.5.ii. Instructional goal(south)
TEs constrained the instructional goals in two ways, by providing broad guidance and parameters or explicitly stating the goal for candidates. Fig. 4 exemplifies how TEs varied approaches to stipulating instructional goals for approximated pedagogy. Educational activity reading and writing requires considerable content knowledge. Constraining the instructional focus allowed candidates to brainstorm to develop a deeper understanding of some key literacy content (eastward.chiliad., text analysis, genre noesis, cognitive reading strategies).
Examples of text option and instructional goals.
4.5.two.one. Concentric circles
Alexis constrained the instructional goal by articulating a theme for candidates. Because their discussions occurred in unlike contexts, she had candidates identify learning goals related to the theme for the students in their placements. Specifically, she asked candidates to focus on "problems of liberty" raised within the mutual text; within that theme, candidates identified their ain goals when planning for concentric circles. This TE decision ensured candidate goals connected to the text only provided flexibility for candidates to consider the students they teach when creating the lesson objective. This intentional decision likely highlighted for candidates the importance of considering the specific students in a classroom when planning for discussions.
4.five.2.2. Rehearsals
For rehearsals, Ella fully articulated the instructional goals for the first set of rehearsals of interactive read alouds and partially articulated them for the subsequent set up of rehearsals. That is, when all candidates prepared to teach using a common lesson programme she had designed for a common text, both the instructional goals focused on content and process were identified. Ella rationalized this decision explaining that from her past experiences, she knows that candidates need more than support in the form of lesson plans and instructional goals, "considering they don't yet take the content knowledge to successfully plan … and they struggle to programme without plenty knowledge." Every bit candidates deepened their understanding of texts and the reading process, Ella shifted her arroyo for the second round of rehearsals. She however articulated one aspect of the instructional goal, the process goal, equally making textual inferences because candidates often demand additional back up understanding this strategy and explaining it to children. Just, candidates identified the content goal for the interactive read aloud to marshal with their self-selected texts.
By constraining the focus of the lessons, the TEs created a space where the group of teacher candidates could brainstorm to interrogate and understand the content more than deeply together. For example, in many rehearsals, the TE was able to support candidates in developing child-friendly explanations of inference, and the group was exposed to multiple applications of inferring beyond a variety of texts. Thus, the common instructional goals engaged non-rehearsing candidates in the rehearsals, thus strengthening the shared community, because they too needed to deepen their cognition for their own upcoming teaching experiences.
4.5.2.3. Work-throughs
In grooming for work-throughs, candidates co-planned lessons focused on the instructional goals that Hope identified each calendar week. For instance, planned writing mini-lessons focused on using dialogue to create strong leads in personal narratives. These instructional goals were linked to central content noesis for teaching writing and provided candidates with opportunities to begin to co-construct understanding within the work-throughs. Further, although only one candidate in each work-through team approximated teaching, all candidates enacted education to some extent following the approximation, either as the lead teacher in a small grouping, or in i-on-one conferences. As such, the common instructional goal likely helped create a shared focus for candidates during the approximations.
five. Word and implications
This written report examined the approximations used in ELA methods courses and respective tools that provide candidates with scaffolded experiences for learning to teach. Findings from this study expand our understanding of approximations of exercise in iii ways. This paper presents two approximations of practice-- concentric circles and work-throughs—heretofore unrepresented in teacher didactics inquiry. The findings also aggrandize the suite of tools TEs should consider as they design approximations. The scaffolds surrounding the approximations - IAs, representations of exercise, planning templates, specified texts and instructional goals - transform the feel into a space in which teacher candidates brainstorm to construct a shared language for describing didactics and a mutual vision of education exercise. These tools practise non appear to operate independently of one another. Rather, the TEs, who facilitated the approximations, coordinated the set up of tools to align with a coherent vision of education they aspire to communicate to teacher candidates.
These findings augment the existing body of literature on tools that serve every bit structures and routines for approximations of practice. The TEs all situated teaching inside of IAs. These IAs served as predictable and manageable structures in which instructional routines were situated (Lampert & Graziani, 2009). Across all iii courses, IAs were non only used to leap the piece of work of teacher candidates during the approximation, simply they also served equally structured spaces for addressing content and practice (Lampert & Graziani, 2009). Further, the apply of IAs to organize and scaffold work within and surrounding the approximation supported TEs in engaging candidates in multiple decompositions and recompositions of exercise (Janssen et al., 2015).
Our analysis shows how TEs deliberately aligned structural and interactional tools that decomposed and represented practise to support approximations. The idea that these components of professional practice interact in a symbiotic style is non new. Approximations, decompositions, and representations of practice frequently overlap in professional person grooming (Grossman et al., 2009). However, our findings betoken that the TEs' pedagogy in the study was nuanced and deliberate, with the goal of explicitly connecting the tools they designed and approximations they used to support teacher candidate learning. This finding appears to be in line with the work of Ghousseini and Herbst (2016) who stress how "teacher educators must enact these pedagogies deliberately, to attend to knowledge, practices, a vision of teaching, and a set of productive dispositions." (p. 101) Across approximations, the TEs designed tools to provide consistent messaging and images nearly the IA of focus. There was alignment beyond the IA, planning templates, and representations of practise.
The deliberate piece of work by the 3 TEs in this study began with the controlled representations of practice they shared. Rather than sharing videos of skilful teachers, the TEs created representations do, either by modeling live with candidates or sharing recordings of their own teaching with students. Each of these representations was planned and created with novice learning in mind. This ensured that representations aligned with the decomposition of practice imbued via the planning templates and debriefs facilitated by the TE. The coherent messaging enables approximations to become fertile ground where candidates experiment with the interactional work of didactics as they co-construct a shared vision of and language for practice. This allows candidates to develop a mutual foundation for pedagogy from which they tin can then learn to improvise. Without this kind of coherence, candidates might focus their energy on managing the cognitive dissonance associated with misaligned tools.
Planning templates and debriefs likewise appeared to shape the shared experience of the candidates. TEs made strategic choices to limit the variation of instructional texts and goals within approximations. The TE representations, including the text and instructional goals, oftentimes mirrored those candidates used during approximations. Teaching English language arts requires deep content knowledge, and property the text and instructional goals constant enables TEs to support the candidates in acquiring specialized content knowledge necessary for specific instructional goals. By opting for depth over breadth of knowledge in early methods courses, candidates come to understand what information technology means to know content securely and the disquisitional role information technology plays in the relational work of educational activity. Moreover, because the content is focused, the work inside of approximations tin can nourish to education practices and the relationship to this content thus strengthening the community's collective understanding of the desired consequence.
Although all the approximations provide opportunities to develop interactive aspects of educational activity, they each support singled-out, additional goals. Work-throughs provide a space for candidates to co-construct agreement, as they toggle betwixt approximating collaborative lesson planning and interactive teaching. In contrast, rehearsals focus entirely on those interactive aspects and situate feedback inside the approximation. The pauses within rehearsals are public, collaborative representations of the inner-thoughts practicing teachers take equally they encounter pedagogical dilemmas during instruction. Finally, concentric circles approximate both interactive teaching and peer observation. Inside the approximation, candidates experience teaching from three different perspectives – teacher, educatee, and observer – thus allowing candidates to see the same component of practice from multiple lenses. Given the multiple roles teachers play in schools of today, it is critical that TEs not only back up candidates in learning to enact teaching, merely as well design experiences where candidates are supported in learning with and from colleagues. Collaborative planning and peer observation are aspects of practice disquisitional to fostering teachers' professional growth (Darling-Hammond & Richardson, 2009).
This study sheds light on the ways in which approximations of practice are spaces where TEs may temporarily reduce the complication of education in order to scaffold candidate learning. As TEs grapple with incorporating different approximations into their methods courses, it is essential that they accept varied "images of the possible", coupled with an agreement of the tools needed to concretize the learning potential of those approximations. These findings are helpful on both fronts. We demonstrate that approximations can take myriad forms beyond the oftentimes-documented "rehearsal of practise." TEs can and should customize the structure of the approximation, in response to learning goals and context. We also demonstrate the ways in which decision-making regarding associated tools might potentially enhance the learning experiences for candidates. Building a more robust understanding of a suite of tools to support approximations is essential to enhancing the quality of rigorous practice-based teacher education.
6. Limitations
While this study makes important contributions to the field of teacher education, it is not without limitations. All researchers and participants were members of the CPC at the time of the study. As such, the CPC community probable shaped the TE pedagogies, by design. One goal of the consortium was to share and refine TE pedagogy, and the features of the approximations nosotros observed were informed by our own shared understanding of practise, which evolved over many years of collaboration. These TEs and the programs in which they piece of work are non designed to exist representative of instructor education programs or TEs nationally. That said, these cases are designed to demonstrate variability in the use of approximations, in the context of longstanding collaborative work of the consortium.
7. Conclusion
Didactics is circuitous, relational work that requires rapid conclusion-making as teachers face up pedagogical dilemmas in existent time. Ultimately, TEs strive to help candidates develop adaptive expertise that will inform the decision-making and interactions inside everyday instruction. Whether candidates are encountering the "blooming buzz" of classroom life (Brownish, 1992) or the "rapids of existent practice" (Grossman et al., 2009, p. 2007), the contingent factors that classroom teachers confront on a daily footing tin can overwhelm novices. As such, scaffolds that diminish the complexity of instruction are necessary to back up novices in learning to teach. Approximations of practice are a promising arroyo to quieting the buzz and calming the rapids. But, approximations tin can involve real students, the most unpredictable cistron in the mind of a novice. Approximations require structures and tools to support candidates in learning to teach in a principled and deliberate way.
Funding
This commonage work has been supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation nether Grant #OPP1089179 and the Spencer Foundation under Grant #201600110. Whatever opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this fabric are those of the author(s) and do non necessarily reverberate the views of the funders.
Acknowledgements
This study has been conducted as part of the work of the Core Practice Consortium (corepracticeconsortium.com) and builds on the contributions of its members. The authors thank the study participants for their willingness to open their do and Hala Ghousseini and Pam Grossman for their thoughtful feedback.
Footnotes
iAmerican term describing practicing teachers.
2Ages 5–18 years old.
3The second author was the teacher educator in this setting.
fourParticipant names are pseudonyms.
Appendix ASupplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/ten.1016/j.compositesb.2019.01.016.
The addition of dispersed PP into 100% carbon roving increases the bending forcefulness by circa 200%, and in a comingled system by circa fifty%.
Using comingled rovings decreases the number of voids seen in cross sections by finer property carbon rovings together, which in turn significantly (p < 0.05) increases the flexural strength.
Appendix A. Supplementary information
The post-obit is the Supplementary data to this article:
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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6472320/
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